Urban Sprawl of Ancient Zarahemla – Part III

Continued from the previous post regarding the vast number of architectural sites in the greater Lima area that once made up a sizeable sprawling complex covering a thousand square miles.
    The Lima culture was an indigenous civilization which it is believed existed during the Early Intermediate Period, extending from roughly 100 to 650 AD. This pre-Incan culture, which overlapped the surrounding Paracas, Moche, and Nasca civilizations, was located in the desert coastal strip of Peru in the Chillón, Rímac, and Lurin river valleys; however, in both time and area, archaeologists claim it is difficult to differentiate the Lima culture from surrounding cultures due to both its physical proximity to other, and better documented cultures, in Coastal Peru, and because it is chronologically very close, if not over lapped, by these other cultures as well.

Unique construction of the mud-brick method of building, used extensively in the greater Lima area made completely of adobe “adobitos”—small sized adobes modeled by hand and stacked for walls and supports. The building material found throughout Pachacamac and Lima area

  
It might be noted that these older monumental constructions were built using hundreds of thousands of mud bricks, in a style known as “book shelf” style because that bricks of the walls appear like books stacked on a shelf. Large numbers of these “books” gradually lean at an angle until they push against others leaning in an opposite angle (such as:||||////\\\\\\||||). It was in this manner that the Lima’s constructions resisted earthquakes.
    Obviously, these cultures that dominated these valleys in what is today the Greater Lima Metropolis were quite advanced in their building techniques—much more than numerous peoples that followed them in Andean Peru, though are basically unknown and undifferentiated to any degree that provides an insight into whether they were one extensive culture or many separate ones.
    As part of this greater Lima archaeological complex was the ancient city area of Maranga, also known as the Maranga huacas, located in the lower valley of the Rímac River, in Lima, Peru. It includes several remains of monumental pyramids built in adobe, as well as other structures such as housing complexes, walls and canals.
    One of the distinct locations within the Maranga, which was located on the left bank of the Rímac River, in what is today the Lima, San Miguel and Pueblo Libre districts, covering a large area, included between the campus of the National University of San Marcos, the Naval Hospital and adjoining urbanizations, the campus of the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru, and the park and zoo of the Parqu de las Leyendas.
    One of the various pyramidal settlements in this area is the Huaca San Marcos.

Huaca San Marcos in the greater Lima area

• Huaca San Marcos. 
This was a spacious area, with large open distances and numerous spaces between palaces and buildings. The settlements of "Huaca San Marcos," "Huaca Middendorf," and "Huaca Concha" formed the first real ceremonial and administrative complex in what is now called Maranga. These three complexes were extended, upwards and to the sides and additional smaller huacas built around them not long after the original settlement. 
    The site is a representative example of the architecture of the immense architectural complex of Maranga, and was initially called "Aramburú" before the University was built around it and the name changed. Currently, the so-called Mound 22, a smaller huaca located to the south, preserves the old name "Aramburú." The entire area was built during the time of or just before the Lima Culture and today an area of 205 square feet rests on a base 1090-feet wide by 450-feet long, within the University of San Marcos. The central part with its five platforms and three adjacent parts were built mainly with "adobitos,” with only a few mud walls having so far been uncovered.
    Inside the huaca at San Marcos, numerous mummy bundles have been excavated by asrchaeologists, along with the remains of vegetables, fish, bones and ceramics from different cultures as well as amazing ancient drawings, all dating to the last half of the first century BC. Unfortunately, the monument and his historical value were badly damaged due to the urban growth and the expansion of the University of San Marcos. At least "Huaca San Marcos" still exists.
    According to Dr. Shelia Pozorski, professor at the University of Texas-Pan America and long-time investigator of pyramids and ancient ruins in Andean Peru, claims that recent research carried out by her and her husband, Tom, have shown that rather than early Peruvian cultures first developing on the coast and then working inland, that both the coastal areas and the inland areas developed at the same time (Henry Fountain, “Archaeological Site in Peru is Called Oldest City in Americas,” New York Times, April 27, 2001).
    This should be especially of interest to Book of Mormon researchers, historians and theorists that such development in Andean South America mirrors the scriptural record and not that of other locations. 

Huaca Middendorf was part of the ancient city of Maranga, and located in the northern part of today's "Parque de las Leyendas" close to the compound of University San Marcos 

• Huaca Middendorf. 
Named after Ernst Wilhelm Middendorf, the great German doctor and pioneer known for his archaeological investigations in Peru, is located in the northern part of today's "Parque de las Leyendas" close to the compound of University San Marcos. Together with the "Huaca San Marcos" and "Huaca Concha" it formed the first ceremonial and administrative complex within the ancient City of Maranga. The huge pyramid was built during the Lima Culture mainly out of "adobitos." The complex is formed by two sections, "Hill A" and "Hill B". "Hill A" is the higher one in the south and has four platforms. 
• Huaca Concha. 
The "Huaca Concha", on the premises of the University of San Marcos, was one of the highest pyramids of the Lima Culture in the ancient City of Maranga. Together with "Huaca San Marcos" and "Huaca Middendorf" was part of the first administrative center. Unfortunately, in the 20th century the expansion of the University ended up with the construction of a football stadium literally on top of the "Huaca Concha" (after demolishing and flattening the peak of the pyramid). This nearly completely destroyed the highly valuable and important historical complex. Even the discovery of significant archaeological objects during and after the construction phase did not stop renovation works of the stadium in the 1990's with even more damages done to the few remains of the "Huaca Concha."
    Archaeologist found yellow painted floors and adobe bricks. "Hill B", the smaller one, has at least two platforms and was presumably used as a cemetery. Only a few investigations of the huaca have been conducted but the whole structure has been stabilized to protect it from further deterioration. Hopefully studies will continue and this historical and archaeological monument will be restored. 

The Huaca Cruz Blanca was part of the Maranga Archaeological complex, inside today's "Parque de las Leyendas" 

• Huaca Cruz Blanca. 
This was an important administration and ceremonial center for the "Chieftain of Maranga," and used in the period of regional chiefs and señoríos and was located in the "Parque de las Leyendas" has a rectangular shape and is divided into two sectors. The Huaca Cruz Blanca is built mainly using mud walls and contains many platforms, stairways, large walls and wide enclosures with public squares, open spaces and niches. 
    This enormous archaeological complex, one of the largest in the province of Lima, rose in its time over a fertile and extensive valley, now completely covered by the disorderly urban expansion. The site encompassed and middle and lower valleys of the Lurín and Rímac rivers, on the central coast at a time when the people dominated the area, and were associated with Pachacamac. There is little known about the site other than it began around the last of the first century BC, and almost nothing about it until the 7^th Century AD.  
     In 1992 and 1993 the higher part was conserved and reconstructed, in 2003 the lower part. The archaeological site is open to the public and worth a closer look. 
(See the next post, “Urban Sprawl of Ancient Zarahemla – Part IV,” for more on the vast number of architectural sites in the greater Lima area that once made up a sizeable sprawling settlement covering a thousand square miles, but now mostly covered over by building expansion of Lima area.

Urban Sprawl of Ancient Zarahemla – Part II

Continued from the previous post regarding the vast number of architectural sites in the greater Lima area that once made up a sizeable sprawling settlement covering a thousand square miles.

The ancient disbursement of numerous peoples and their settlements within the greater Lima area

 

It should be noted that three groups came to the Comarca of Lima: a) the Collas, who came from the mountain ranges around Cuzco; b) the Huallas, who descended from the upper Chancay to the coast; and c) the Huanchos, who began their expansion towards the coast from the heights of Huarochirí
    It should be noted that archaeologists and anthropologists claim that numerous different cultures settled in the Lima area over time; however, what is really known is that there were people there and their affiliation to a “culture” does not mean they were different people, only that they existed in different eras along a time line—and that is typically determined by such things as the use of, artistic abilities of, and style of ceramics. As an example there is one group claimed to have existed in the Lima area called the Ruicancho or Lurigancho, and is one of the pre-hispanic groups of the valleys of the central coast, of which often only their names are known. In fact, some of these groups origins and activities are so shrouded in antiquity, that most of what is considered “known” today, and found in numerous writings, books, and so-called history, is merely a fabrication of those who found and studied a particular group, arranging their lives and accomplishments based upon the most minimal of standards that has led to such great misunderstanding among today’s researchers and historians.
    Finally, as for the Lima Prehispanic its historiography is still incomplete, information is lacking that facilitates the studies, misconceptions are repeated and the current population expansion throughout the three valleys erase the old toponyms and wipe out the archaeological monuments, many of them without having been studied. At best, our knowledge of this vast area is extremely limited.

The major pre-historic settlement areas that make up the Greater Lima Area of today. Initially, the cultures began in Pachacamac, but eventually spread throughout this metropolitan area

What is stated by those who work this area is that certain named groups of people moved into the Pachacamac-Lima area:
1. Collas, or Kolla, who spoke the indigenous language of Aymara, no doubt in part from the earlier Aymara kingdoms or lacustrine kingdoms, and who came from the mountains of Cuzco, spreading along the left bank of the Chillón River, occupying it from Yangas to the Callao—a people who were excellent architects and stone carvers, who worshipped Huiracocha (Viracocha) the “Creator God.” This culture inexplicably collapsed in the first millennia AD.
2: The Huallas, who descended from the upper Chancay River to the east of Huaral, down to the coast at Chacray Mar and Pasamayo to the coast, founding towns such as Kara Huallas, Maranca, Huadca Hualla, Sulco and Marca Huillca. Originally in the mountain ranges around Lima, their migration into the lowlands to the coast for lbetter lands drove them into this greater Lima area.
3. The Huallas who began their expansion towards the coast from the heights of Huarochirí and through the channels of the Santa Eulalia and Rímac rivers, reached the middle part of this last valley, settling in Huachipa, Huacho Huallas, Carapongo, Huampaní , Caxamarquilla, Pariachi, Lati and Hurin Huancho.
    In addition, it is believed during the early pre-historic times that a single power or government was combined in the valleys of the Comarca, i.e., the valleys of Chancay, Chillón, Rimarc and Lurín (Jose Antonio del Busto Duthurburu, General History of Peru: Discovery and Conquest, 1978).

Among these three early cultures, the ancient disbursement of people and settlements within the greater Lima area is shown

It should also be noted that among these cultures, another emerged that is barely known to archaeologists and yet to be understood, called by them the Ruicancho or Lurigancho. In fact, this entire area of the Huanchos has been confused by the various different claims of numerous researchers as to their identity, but assumed to belong to the various cultural groups in time. In addition, this area of Lima prior to about 200 BC was a conglomeration of large buildings without structure or overall organization. From 200 BC onward, archaeologists claim the area became an established culture, upon whose shoulders the later Lima culture rested.
    This idea is one that should be of interest to those theorists, historians and researchers of the Book of Mormon, for this fits the time frame of the early Mulekites living in an unorganized settlement under the direction of caciques (local chiefs), and about the time that Mosiah discovered them, began to be established as a productive culture, building a considerable complex and civilization from that point onward.
    In the previous post, the area of Maranga was discussed, and it should be noted, that while this area underwent much construction over several centuries beginning around 500 BC, the complex experienced considerable reconstruction period between 200 BC and 150 AD, during what has been called the Maranga II, "Blanco sobre Rojo Tradition," where earlier construction was almost entirely replaced by new construction of the city complex. In fact, until the 20^th century, the ruins of Maranga were known as Huática, though this name really applied only to a very old irrigation canal located east of Maranga.
    In the period following, called Maranga III, Lima Tradition (150 AD to 450 AD), the pyramids grew. Cubical adobe bricks were used as construction material and the existing huacas were extended with platforms, enclosures and passages. Walls were plastered and painted yellow. This architectural style can be found in the "Huaca Middendorf," the "Huaca San Marcos," the "Huaca Concha," and the "Huaca Potosi Alto.” This period is characterized by the overall growth of the complex and a sophisticated urban establishment of the site.

Huaca El Paraís

• El Paraiso. 
In the greater Lima area near Maranga og the Chillón River valley, is the pyramidal complex originally called Chuquitanta but renamed El Paraiso (The Paradise), this Late Preceramic archaeological site is located in the Chillón Valley and one of the largest settlements from this period, encompassing over 143 acres of land. It was occupied at a time a time when settlements were broadly distributed, located at various distances from the coast allowing access to a variety of marine and agricultural resources. While it is generally accepted as a Preceramic site by most archaeologists, the occupation actually was in the Ceramic Period and ceramics have been found there, along with textiles, such as cotton.
    The site housed around 3000 people and was built with thick wall construction of stone quarried in local hills, and was either an economic or religious center or both. Built around a U-shaped central plaza of almost two acres, it resembles many nearby sites in the Chillón, Rimac and Lurín Valleys, and was likely a precursor to such later sites.
    It was originally excavated by Louis Stumer, then Thomas C. Patterson and Edward P. Lanning, and finally by Fréderick Engel between the 1950s and 1965. In December 2012 a new investigation and excavation project led by Mark Guillen started at El Paraiso. And after three months a groundbreaking discovery was announced. Archaeologists found an ancient temple located next to the main temple of El Paraiso. First excavations uncovered an underground ceremonial center comprising of 4 levels each older than the other. The construction is believed to have been built around 3000 BC. The inside discovered fire place where presumably offerings were burnt earned the ceremonial center the name "Templo el Fuego" (Fire Temple).
    It is now believed that the overall complex consisted of around 10 to 15 pyramidal structures. Unit I or the main temple of El Paraiso was assumedly a ceremonial center used by the community, with Unit IV used for feasting ceremonies associated with the other units.
(See the next post, “Urban Sprawl of Ancient Zarahemla – Part III,” for more on the vast number of architectural sites in the greater Lima area that once made up a sizeable sprawling settlement covering a thousand square miles, but now mostly covered over by building expansion of Lima area.

Urban Sprawl of Ancient Zarahemla – Part I

When the Nephites discovered the descendants of Mulek in their city of Zarahemla, the city must have been insignificant, since it is neither described in any way, nor was the leader, Zarahemla, referred to as a king. In any event, with the inclusion of the Nephites, with their vast nearly 400-year history of building dating back to Nephi (2 Nephi 5:10,13,17), it should be expected that the city of Zarahemla, destined to be the capital of the Nephite Nation for several hundred years, would grow considerably.
    While the style and size of Zarahemla are never mentioned in the scriptural record, that it was the main city and location of the Nephites is quite clear in the events that unfolded over the several hundred years of its existence, even being rebuilt after a fire destroyed the city around 34AD (3 Nephi 8:8,24; 9:3; 4 Nephi 1:8). 
    Obviously, there can be little doubt that Zarahemla grew in size and scope as the Nephite capital expanded to accommodate the ever growing Nephite population (4 Nephii 1:23). Thus, for any place to be considered the city of Zarahemla in modern theory, it would have to include in size and scope, an ever increasing city of expansion. One where urban sprawl was evident from its constant growth as the people’s numbers grew until “the people were as numerous almost, as it were the sand of the sea” (Mormon 1:7).
    We also need to point out that Mulek, who escaped from Jerusalem in the final year of his father, king Zedekiah, before the city fell to the Babylonians, landed along the West seashore of the Land of Promise, for Amaleki tells us that “Mosiah discovered that the people of Zarahemla came out from Jerusalem at the time that Zedekiah, king of Judah, was carried away captive into Babylon. And they journeyed in the wilderness, and were brought by the hand of the Lord across the great waters, into the land where Mosiah discovered them; and they had dwelt there from that time forth” (Omni 1:15-16, emphasis added).

The city of Zarahemla would have been near the coast where Mulek landed, with the Land of Zarahemla eventually running eastward from there to the Sidon River with the Valley and land of Gideon beyond

Thus, the city of Zarahemla would have to be reasonably close to the coast where Mulek landed, and that would not be the east coast, since the Land of Zarahemla stretched to the east of the city to the border of the land and the land of Gideon beyond eastward (Alma 2:20,26), with the Land of Gideon to the east of the Sidon River (Alma 2:15,27).
    It might also be understood, as the Amlicites and the Lamanites, which had sought to reach Zarahemla from the east after crossing the River Sidon, the Nephites chased them westward into the wilderness that stretched both toward Zarahemla to the west, and the open land to the north of the city (Alma 2:35-36) into the wilderness of Hermounts (Alma 2:37). Thus, we find a vast land to the east of the city of Zarahemla, encompassing an extensive wilderness, the River Sidon and the Valley and land of Gideon beyond.
    Since the Mulekites or people of Zarahemla came “across the great waters into the land where Mosiah discovered them; and they had dwelt there from that time forth” (Omni 1:15-16), it cannot be suggested that either the Mulekites landed on the east shore, or that the city of Zarahemla was on or near the east shore.
    As a result, we need to look to a landing in the West Sea of the Land of Promise, and along the coastal area of the west seashore for the city of Zarahemla. Such an area is found in Andean Peru of South America in the location of present-day Lima, Peru. In this vast city and urban complex of Lima, Callao, Maranga, San Isidoro, Miraflores, San Borja and southward to the present location of Pachacamac, was anciently an immense series of interconnected pyramidal city developments stretching more than a thousand square miles by the time the Spanish arrived.
    Since then, of course, this area has grown in modern times, with bulldozers and modern buildings destroying and building over the original archaeological sites that at present count, number more than 250 pyramids and building complexes. Many of these original pyramidal cities still exist as the urban sprawl of the 19^th and 20^th centuries built all around them. One such pyramid is that of San Isidro.

The complete reconstructed Huaca Huallamarca in San Isidro along the southern outskirts of the city of Lima

The pyramid of Huallamarca, also known as Huaca Pan de Azúcar, meaning “sugar bread,” was situated in the greater Lima area in what is today an upscale financial center that is home to politicians and celebrities.
    Surrounded by desert, the early ancient Peruvians needed to channel water from surrounding rivers in order to cultivate their soil for agricultural purposes. This resulted in the construction and maintenance of an extensive irrigational system, redirecting canals, and method of terracing that also had to be expended as the city complex grew in size. Today the Huaca Huallamarca is surrounded by modern constructions where excavations are still ongoing at the adobe pyramid.
    Findings to this point show the site was added to in three major stages, from the latter part of the first century BC, and again around 200 AD, and finally, after 421 AD. In addition, the site was home to several “cultures” over the centuries, including the Inca who moved into the area after their conquest of the Ishma culture. The pyramid structure, in the midst of modern buildings, stands out distinctly and is a testament of the highly developed building techniques and achievements of an earlier age.
    It is assumed that originally these pyramids served as areas of worshipping for the early Peruvians where Viracocha or Pachacamac, the Creator of the World, was the land’s reigning deity.

Location of the various archaeological sites in the greater Lima area

Huaca Huallamarca. The history of the "Huaca Huallamarca" goes back to the early Christian era when the "Hualla" from the Lima Culture occupied the complex. Its original purpose was to serve as a place of worship for the tribes of the Lima Culture. During the time of this development the big and main pyramid was built. It was constructed completely with adobe bricks, shaped by hand and assembled to platforms (one over the other) to create enclosures, patios, passageways and private areas. Everything was painted in a yellowish color. Side ramps were built to reach the different levels. Access to the ceremonial center was probably only allowed to a religious elite.
    During the early stages, the first burials were quite simple. The bodies were placed in an extended position, wrapped in cotton cloths and tied to a reed stretcher. The offerings placed around the head consisted of ceramic pots and food for the afterlife. As time passed, new urban and cultural centers arose in the valley and the "Huallamarca" was abandoned as a temple. The population only used the ceremonial complex as a burial ground. In this second phase burials became more elaborate. Funerary bundles with "false heads" were made. The bodies were wrapped in woven cloth and buried with textiles, decorated ceramic pots, gourds, tools, musical instruments, food and other valuable objects.
    The city of "Huallamarca's" as a human settlement grew with terraces added on the east side of the pyramid and added dwellings, patios, storage and cooking areas. Typical for this time period are the large in-built deposits and huge terra-cotta vessels used for the storage of grain and liquids. Archaeologists found measuring and weighting devices as well as goods for barter trade (swapping).

The vast, sprawling complex of Maranga, which was built with "adobitos" (small adobe bricks). Other examples for this period are the "Huaca Middendorf" and the "Huaca San Marcos"

Maranga Complex. The archaeological site known today as the "Archaeological Complex of Maranga,” originally extended over today's districts of Cercado de Lima (Lima Center), Pueblo Libre and San Miguel. By the beginning of the 20th century big parts of the once huge settlement were destroyed mainly due to urban growth and construction. The original dimensions of the once great complex can only be guessed at today since a soccer stadium was built over it during the 20^th century expansion of the University of San Marcos,, resulting in the demolishing and flattening the peak of the huge pyramid.
    Located in the "Parque de las Leyendas,: which today houses not only the zoo and botanical garden of Lima but as well a big part of Lima's most extensive ancient city and one of the most important pre-Hispanic complexes at the central Peruvian coast. The ancient city of Maranga contained impressive huge monuments, numerous pyramids, palaces, temples and administrative centers.
    Also an ancient wall, roads, residential areas, water reservoirs and irrigation channels were part of the complex. The original buildings date back to 500 BC, and were added to considerably over time. All were built by different cultures who occupied the area continuously from around 600 BC until the Inca period in 1532.
(See the next post, “Urban Sprawl of Ancient Zarahemla – Part II,” for more on the vast number of architectural sites in the greater Lima area that once made up a sizeable sprawling settlement covering a thousand square miles)

The Megatropolis of Ancient Andean Peru

In the ancient Latin Language, the word metropolis, which was borrowed from the Greek, meant “chief town or capital city of a province,” and was first used in English in the 13^th century referencing “metropol” or “metropolitan” “pertaining to or belonging to a metropolis.” It was also found in 1530 referencing a “seat of a metropolitan bishop.”
    The word was used initially in the Greek for “Mother City,” and referenced a large city or conurbation which was a significant economic, political, and cultural center for a country or region, and an important hub for regional or international connections, and sent out settlers into the surrounding areas. This was later generalized to a city regarded as a center of a specified activity, or any large, important city in a nation.
    In ancient Peru, there is one area that exemplifies this definition more than any other and that is the area of today’s Lima and southward to Pachacamac, an overall area of more than a thousand square miles (by comparison New York City 468 square miles; Los Angeles is 503 square miles, and Mexico City is 573 square miles).
    The massive ancient buildings of Pachacamac and Lima, the Nephite Capital City and its Broad Urban Design is a true metropolitan conurbation that stretches along the central coast of Peru and into the Chillón, Rímac, and Lurín valleys where construction has developed and spread to link areas to create a single urban settlement.
    Lima is one of the most interesting and challenging cities in South America with a huge archaeological, historical and cultural past. Long before the Common Era until the arrival of the Spaniards numerous highly advanced cultures settled the area of today's Lima. Even today they amaze the viewer and historian with their complex skills in construction, agriculture and arts.
    There are to date about 250 discovered pyramidal and archaeological sites, many of which have only been uncovered in recent years. These huacas (sacred place) or archaeological complexes include sites that were at least partially spared from destruction and deterioration as the modern sprawl of this region swept over the entire Lima to Pachacamac complex. Some of these ruins stand out right in the middle of the huge metropolis as a permanent reminder of the great ancient cultures in the region.
    The area of today's Lima City and Province has been already inhabited for many thousands of years. That's the reason why you will find hundreds of ancient settlements hidden somewhere in Lima and the surroundings. But only around 250 archaeological sites and huacas in the capital are registered with the National Institute of Culture.

From Lima in the north to Pachacamac in the south, these 250 archaeological sites command great attention for their contribuiton to the knowledge of this ancient area

These ancient historical sites and buildings are spread over the traditional and modern districts of Lima. Explorers and archaeologists rediscovered a few hundred years back many of these historical monuments, but their findings were until generally ignored until only a few years ago. Unfortunately today only a few huacas are cared for, preserved, restored or investigated in an appropriate manner. Most of the valuable reminders of Lima's rich archaeological and historical past seem to be forgotten.
    Most sites are totally neglected, left to deteriorate and exposed to Lima’s urban expansion. There are, as an example, residences, small plantations, rubbish, a soccer field or even a garage in an archaeological complex or on top of an ancient temple. It is not surprising to see major roads literally cutting through a historical complex.
    Yet, at one time, this ancient metropolis covered more than a thousand square miles, larger than any modern city, with hundreds of known ancient sites, and several hundred more believed to have been permanently covered over by modern expansion nd building in the area.
    Fortunately, awareness of ancient cultures has grown over the past few years in Andean Peru, and thanks to the efforts of the Peruvian government, the Municipality of Lima, cultural institutions, archaeologists, companies and private citizen projects, Peru has started to save at least a few of these ancient relics. Huacas like "Huaca Mateo Salado" in Pueblo Libre, "Huaca Santa Cruz" in San Isidro, "Huaca Santa Catalina" in La Victoria, "Huaca Huantille" in Magdalena, "Huaca San Borja" in San Borja, "Huaca Rosada" in San Miguel, "Huaca Capillo" in Ventanilla and the "Archaeological Complex of Puruchuco" are being preserved from further deterioration, investigated and restored. These enormous efforts and the costs involved are opening the door to more and greater knowledge of the civilization that started these sites more than two thousand years ago.

The huge pyramid complex located in urban Lima of the downtown Miraflores District

Those sites that have been uncovered, have so far yielded great structures built by ancient cultures (or one single culture dominating the land for a thousand years), with valuable artifacts and mummies within a short time. Day by day more information and details about the life, culture, religion, social structure, skills, techniques and abilities regarding arts and handicrafts were revealed.
    The archaeological complex of Pachacamac is located within this overall metropolis, around 25-miles south-east of Lima’s present-day city center. The enormous site is very impressive with its great pyramidal temples, dwellings, remains of frescoes decorating the adobe walls and other interesting archaeological constructions built. The site was the most important religious center of indigenous people at the Peruvian coast in pre-Hispanic times.
    It was the main destination for pilgrims in the coastal region and attracted worshippers from all over Peru. Extensive research and excavations, especially in the last couple of years, revealed amazing findings about the significance and history of Pachacamac. The on-site museum displays artifacts discovered at Pachacamac (astonishing ceramics, beautiful textiles and religious pieces) and at the same time explains the history and importance of the Ceremonial Center of Pachacamac to its visitors.

The guarded entrance of Pachacamac, a complex built for and named after the “The One Who Animates the World,” and the God who created the world as understood by the Ancient Peruvians 

The Ceremonial Center of Pachacamac was dedicated to the most important "god" at the Peruvian coast in pre-Hispanic times—Pachacamac, which translated means "The one who animates the world"), who was a powerful god that was the creator of the world. The occupation of Pachacamac began around the end of the first century BC, and was the first temple site in the Lima cultural area. The materials used and the construction techniques were very complex for that timed, with stone walls serving as a base for the amazing structures made of "adobitos" (small adobe bricks that can also be seen at the "Conjunto de Adobitos", the "Templo de Urpiwachak" and the "Templo Viejo."

At the time, Pachacamac's influence was only local; however, as the people began to expand and fill up the land, the size of the complex and ever-expanding influence made it the most important site along the central coast and a place of continued growth, power, influence and the adoration of "Pachacamac."
    In time the ceremonial center of Pachacamac increased its magnificence. The "Templo Pintado" was fortified and 15 main temples and "stepped pyramids" with ramps, storage facilities and patios were erected. These constructions were mainly built with adobe bricks and mortar; plastered but not painted. Two main streets connected the magnificent temples.

Today, Pachacamac is a vast complex of buildings, temples, roads, and outlying buildings that dominates the entire region 

The complex of Pachacamac was one of the largest centers in central Peru, and over the years grew into the massive complex stretching across what is today Lima’s metropolitan area. Obviously, in the ancient past, when the pyramids and buildings were being constructed, the site would have been seen as a capital of an Empire, or the seat of the Nation. Just as obviously, it fits the description of the Nephite Zarahemla to which Mosiah I led the more righteous Nephites when they quit the city of Nephi in the midst of growing evil to which the Lord told him to leave and take “as many as would hearken unto the voice of the Lord should also depart with him” (Omni 1:12). The following description of the people of Zarahemla which Mosiah discovered was of a people who had not achieved much in the way of progress, and likely had little in the way of buildings of development. The story of Pachacamac is that at some point toward the end of the first century BC, the city began to grow and never stopped growing until it had achieved the conurbation that marked the height of 1000 years of Nephite achievement.

All of the Middle East Built in Mud Brick and Stone

We receive comment from time to time regarding points that are inconsistent with the scriptural and historical record. Recently,  a reader sent in a comment in which he said, in part, “The Nephites built with wood; their houses in Jerusalem and surrounding areas were not cut stone. It is quite clear they built with wood (Hel 3:5-11).” We also have another comment regarding this issue: “I think that the mistake comes whenever somebody claims that the Nephites built exclusively of wood or exclusively with stone. The scriptures are clear that they used both. While many homes may have been primarily of wood, their important buildings were of stone—temples, fortresses, palaces, fortifications, anything meant to last.”
    The fact of the matter is, most theorists, especially those involving North America (Heartland, Great Lakes, etc.) have the wrong idea of how buildings in the Middle East were constructed, and of what material, thus they feel free to comment on such not knowing the errors of their opinion.

Bedouin tents are still in use today by the nomadic Jews and Arabs; however, many settlements and cities are permanent with stone buildings

First of all, it should be noted that these people in ancient Palestine used two types of housing: 1 tents, and 2) houses. The latter were found in villages and cities where numerous people gathered for their common good and protection.
    Most of the tribal people in the Book of Genesis were nomads who lived in tents and traveled with their flocks. They were often on the move, looking for fresh pasture for their flocks, water, and a shaded oasis. This constant movement necessitated a moveable dwelling, and tents were idea for that life style.
    Initially the area of the high hills between the Jordan and the coastal plain was dry and infertile. Many waves of people had, however, succeeded each other there, but the hazards and uncertainties of growing crops explain why nomadism always prevailed in Canaan at the very earliest date.
    These early people there have been designated proto-Canaanites by modern-day scholars because they had not yet established an identifiable culture. They worked in stone and developed trade with other nations, and by 2000 BC, began building permanent housing in the area.
    Initially, this area of Palestine, to which the early Patriarchs moved toward, and which first had a nomadic existence with only seasonal settlements (such as the site of the later city of Jericho). However, around 2000 BC permanent settlements were founded and the practice of animal husbandry established earlier, was developed further. When the early patriarchs traveled in Canaan or Palestine, they noted that the inhabitants of those areas lived in villages and fortified towns, and had a settled way of life.

Typical BC settlement in Palestine showing houses built out of cut stone, some dressed to form corners, doorways, lintels, etc., and most plastered over around a central courtyard

As early as 1570 BC, Canaanite cities were walled and well-fortified (Joshua J. Mark, “Canaan,” Ancient History Encyclopedia, UK, 23 October 2018). The Israelites soon saw the advantages of town life and began to live in permanent settlements. Clusters of houses sprang up wherever there was good land in Canaan and later Palestine that could be farmed, some claiming Jerusalem was first begun in 3000 BC. King David made Jerusalem his city in 1000 BC, and Solomon built the first temple there about 40 years later.
    That temple, dated to 960 BC, was made of stone. The wood used was for inside paneling, however, that was then covered with sheets of gold. During the time of David, houses largely replaced tents in most parts of the world as agriculture and settled villages replaced the nomadic way of life, though tents continued in use throughout biblical times—even right up to modern times.
    Stone for building, or mud and straw for mud bricks, was plentiful in most of Palestine, and stone was generally used at least in the foundations of all houses, with mud-brick walls and interior divisions (Elizabeth Fletcher, Women in the Bible: An Historical Approach, Harper Collins, New York, 1997).
    At first, the basic floor plan followed the layout of the tents: one long room at the front, and another one immediately behind it.
    However, as villages became the predominant pattern of life, the basic floor plan of a modest house changed. Now it had a central courtyard with a number of rooms opening off it, which rooms were small by our standards, with a minimum of windows. Lattice work and shutters were used to cover window openings.
    The size of the rooms, of course, were limited by the fact that rooms could only be as wide as the beams that supported the roof. Beams, usually wooden and roughly shaped, reached from one wall to the other, and were covered with a mixture of woven branches and clay, which was smoothed with a stone roller.
    The inner walls were finished with a smooth coat of clay or plaster, which could be decorated with frescoes, elaborate in the houses of the rich, simpler in the houses of ordinary people. Wide benches of mud brick or stone for sitting and sleeping, and shelves for storage, were built into the structure itself.

Except for an occasional window, the inside rooms were small and dark

The inside rooms tended to be small and dark, so the courtyard and the roof were important parts of the house, used for tasks that needed good light, such as spinning and weaving, and food preparation. Stairs or a wooden ladder led up onto the roof, which was used as an outdoor room that was partly shaded by matting or a ten-like superstructure, and the preferred sleeping area during the warm summer months. In some cases, the roof was where bathing took place, as seen in the case of Bathsheba (2 Samuel 11:2-4).
    The central courtyard contained such items as the mikveh, a pool of clean rainwater used for ritual cleansing by both men and women; a stone-based cooking area with a fire, cooking utensils and possibly an oven; a stone or clay implements for grinding small amounts of grain; a covered area where people sat while they worked or talked; a covered area for animals. This outside area was, if the weather was good, a center of activity and socializing.
    By modern standards, the houses of people in ancient Palestine were sparsely furnished.    Ordinary people sat on cushions or mats on the floor to eat, rather than sitting on chairs at a table. They slept on padded matting filled with stuffing. Tables, couches and beds were only used in the houses of the rich.
    It should also be noted that these houses had no outside property within the city area; space was at a premium, necessitating people living with their animals at close quarters. Animals, if had at all, were kept in the lower level of the house and the inner courtyard.
    Walls and large buildings in the Israelite cities were built of hewn stone, frequently inferior in quality to that used in the preceding Canaanite constructions. The stone used for house building varied from common field stones or bigger roughly shaped quarry stones held together with plenty of clay mortar, to carefully wrought dressed quarry stone.
    A typical Israelite wall was made of a mixture of hewn wrought and unhewn stones, the wrought stones being used for corners (cornerstones) and as headers and stretchers at fixed intervals; the space between them was filled by rough stones embedded in mortar.
    This was a quick and cheap method of building. The city itself was surrounded by an inner and an outer wall, as most cities were at the time, with the outer wall surrounding the whole city, protecting it from foreign intruders with the inner wall enclosing a central administrative compound for palace, temples, and large-scale food storage. Well-to-do people lived in the central compound, while poor and disreputable people lived in the outer compound, between the two walls.

Stick and thatch huts found in the eastern U.S. and Heartland dating to earliest times

The question that every theorist should ask themselves is whether the Nephites, coming from this background and knowledge through Nephi, Sam and Zoram. They knew about mud-brick building, and knew about cutting and dressing stone cut from quarries, for that was the only type of building knowledgeable to them. Why, then, would any theorist suggest that North America, With that said, the North American model, which lacks any stone structure remains of important buildings and fortifications throughout any part of the country, consider this to be where Lehi settled and the 1000-year Nephite nation existed?
    For the most part, these North American theorists want us to believe that Nephi, who was taught by the Lord (1 Nephi 18:3) then taught his followers how to build (2 Nephi 5:15), that such a technique would have been so primordal.
    What we find interesting is that members tend to believe that the Nephites were very primitive running around in loin cloths and building stick huts. Such a notion of a people with over 1000-year history of development and accomplishment, would be so described is clearly ludicrous. If one is to find the Nephites in the Western Hemisphere, then one needs to look for cultures that pretty much mimic the Palestinians of 600 BC, for that is what they knew and what they brought with them when they arrived in the Americas.

The Magnificent Pyramid Complex at Túcume – Part II

Continued from the previous post regarding the pyramid complex or series of 26 close-packed pyramids in the Lambayeque Valley, the largest valley of the North Coast of Peru, all dating to before the Moche, who themselves were a wealthy and powerful farming-based people, who built many kinds of sophisticated structures, including irrigation systems and elaborate religious complexes known as huacas, which included stepped pyramids.
    As mentioned in the previous post, the Huaca Larga, or the Long Pyramid, is the longest adobe structure known to date, and was originally a freestanding platform that was remodeled into is current configuration by adding the step pyramid on top. Long corridors and dividing walls partition the complex, and researchers have identified a northern, possibly public, ceremonial area and a southern area devoted to cooking and manufacturing.

The mud0brick adobe pyramid complex called Huaca Larga at Túcume, the protector of Túcume and a sacred hill

All the buildings in this region later, during the Chimú occupation and domination, were painted in the colors red, white and black. The walls were decorated, one mural depicting flying birds in the “Temple of the Mythical Bird” stands out from the rest. Apparently, the Chimú tried to convert Huaca Larga into a structure that resembled the vast adobe city of Chan Chan, found near Trujillo.
    Though Túcume is now properly analyzed, it went largely unrecognized until Thor Heyerdahl’s interest was ignited by the complex in 1988. Since then considerable work has been done around Túcume, uncovering additional and fascinating pyramid structures and impressive artefacts. In fact, so many artefacts were uncovered that a museum was built at Túcume. The weaving of delicate textiles practiced at Huaca Larga and may well date back to what archaeologists have labelled Chimu period or before.
    However, the most exciting discoveries of this region is that of possible ocean travel and boat building by early inhabitants of Túcume. Among the finds were stunning friezes depicting birdmen piloting boats amid anthropomorphic waves. Again, a consistent connection to Helaman 3:14 mentioning the Nephite’s history of “their shipping and building of ships.”
    A very important fact involved in these pyramids and the communities surrounding them is that though archaeologists and historians have neatly divided Peruvian history in various “cultures,” the sites show continuity in use, with one culture not abandoning a sacred site and constructing its own, but merely “taking over” the management of the site.
    Another way to say this is that the people who lived in these cities were long-time residents who developed in their skills, artistic interests, and manufacturing ability over time and were not separate cultures, but developmental stages of one culture or society.
    Another obstacle to numerous and separate cultures as opposed to one, continuous culture, is that of building time and investment of labor. That is, it has been determined that it would have taken 2000 people per year to make bricks for one pyramid. It would therefore take thousands of people to complete one pyramid, but there are no less than 26 in total in Túcume alone, and more than 200 across the entire valley! Pyramid building would thus have been an all-consuming task for the people of this valley if constructed at one time or by an itinerant social order.

The several buildings and pyramids at Túcume, not badly weathered

On the other hand, built over hundreds of years by one continuous society would make such activity both understandable and workable. It is also clear that the pyramids were built according to a strict master plan, thus additionally suggesting a single society over a long period of time.
    The pyramids were not tombs. The tops of most pyramids were flat and there were either rooms in or along the path upwards. Some of the rooms contained food remains, like llama and large fish, traditionally assumed to be the food of the wealthy. There was an oven with charcoal, all suggestive of the fact that people lived here for long periods of times.
    On top of one pyramid, the remains of a 35-year-old man have been discovered. He wore jewelry and a feather headdress, no doubt a member of a governing elite, either in a political and or religious sense. Beneath one such room researchers found buried below a level built much earlier containing weaving of delicate textiles, including high quality wooden implements for spinning and weaving and for inlaid earspools.
    In a different room atop Huaca Larga, archaeologists discovered three male burials, one of them of a mature, robust man with insignia, suggesting he may have been a governor or chief judge of Túcume. Shortly after these burials took place, all standing structures on Huaca Larga were razed and huge fires that could be seen over great distances were lit on top.
    Oral history also recalls that enormous fires were lit by the Spanish colonists to convince the local population that Tucume was the gate to purgatory. As mentioned, Purgatorio or Purgatory is still the name by which the local people refer to the complex today. Yet, despite this “Christian warning,” local shaman healers (“curanderos”) continue to invoke the power of Túcume and the central La Raya Mountain, or Mountains of the Ray, in their rituals, assisted by shamanic techniques and the psychoactive San Pedro cactus, holding weekly rituals which researchers believe have been going on since before Inca times.
    In a third pyramid, which had suffered heavily from damage inflicted by looting, were found beautiful friezes, of a quality previously unknown in the Lambayeque region, and one of Túcumes most interesting features. These include the frieze known as “the Mound of the Rafts", which is located on the southwestern margin of the site in the only group of large pyramids outside the monumental sector. While the "Frieze of the Rafts" depicts a mythical scene in which a bird-man and a mythical bird lead a raft, following a similar boat with a related crew, the "Frieze of the Rite" depicts a figure who may be a priest inside a roofed structure and holding a lama in one hand and a staff in the other. While their precise meaning remains unclear, archeologist Alfredo Narváez sees a revival of the earlier Moche tradition of fine-line drawing, as seen in their exquisite ceramics, transposed to a different medium. A narrative character has been attributed to the Moche ceramic drawings. Thus, the friezes of Huaca Balsas may depict scenes that form part of one or more Lambayeque myths.

Cerra Blanco hill at Chan Chan, referred to as the “Man of Chan Chan,” protector of the Campana, a sacred location in the area

Like the Cerra Blanco hill at the Chan Chan complex, the Cerra La Raya forms the focus of this site. All 26 structures are built around this circular and cone-shaped hill, which rises 646-feet high (equivalent to a 64-story building today) and which is also known as “El Purgatorio,” which was held sacred—and and continues to be held sacred today—and is at the core of why these structures were erected here. Access to the sacred mountain was originally restricted, as many cultures felt that humans should not enter the domain of the “apu,” the mountain god, though there is evidence of later Inca constructions on the hill, such as an altar site. That the mountain of the gods was off-limit to humans explains why the people “had” to build a pyramid – a replica mountain which they were allowed to access.
    To fully understand the Túcume complex, we need to look at the “Temple of the Sacred Stone,” which is a small, unpretentious, rectangular U-shaped structure to the east of Huaca Larga. It is considered a major temple that pilgrims had to pass by before entering the complex. The walled roadway system of this section of the Lambayeque valley leads straight to this temple, and then onwards to Huaca Larga.
    The revered object of this temple appears to have been a large, upright boulder in the middle of the one-room building: the “sacred stone,” though no one today knows what it represents. That it was the “Piedra Sagrada,” “the omphalos,” or center of something seems certain, but of what is unknown.
    The identification of the site and the mountain with Purgatory is therefore probably not a coincidence. The Spanish Conquistadors probably understood the local rituals and compared them with their own Christian upbringing. Purgatory and fire go hand in hand in the Christian tradition, where purgatory is a state of existence, the domain of the dead who were with sin and where the fire purges the soul of its sin.
    Once again, this entire area is more reminiscent of a continuous occupation by a singular people over a very long time and not a parade of separate cultures which just happen to appear in the area time after time. It might also be of interest to know that when settlement areas to the south were anciently burned, this area to the north swelled with increased populations.

The Magnificent Pyramid Complex at Túcume – Part I

Completely unknown to most tourists and even historians, an obscure patch of plainlands between the Andes and the Pacific in northern Peru contains an array of structures of varying sizes, including simple buildings, cemeteries, and residential areas contrasted with monumental architectural structures, including 26 enormous adobe truncated pyramids that were constructed in stages throughout the centuries.
    This construction of colossal dimensions, was growing over hundreds of years, from before  the Lambayeque period, incorporating the development of the area. Throughout generations and new rulers, Huaca Larga was growing in height, length and width, filling old rooms thus forming new platforms on which new rooms, corridors or ramps were built.
    The area also includes the best expressions of mural art in the entire Lambayeque region as well as one of the largest and most important groupings of ancient pyramids in the world. During the three periods of occupation, the site constituted the center of political power in the region, one of the richest in the north coast of Peru due to the extension of agricultural productive areas and the security of water.

The Lambayeque District surrounds the Chiclayo region and includes the city of Chiclayo and Túcume in northern coastal Peru

  
Referred to as the Túcume Pyramids, or just Túcume, the site has an astonishing 250 pyramids within three separate cities, including an array of structure of varying sizes, which arose successively over a period of several centuries. At one time occupied by the Inca, and before that, the Chimú, and before that the Lambayeque, also known as the Sican (Sicán), the actual city of Túcume, with its 26 enormous adobe truncated pyramids, the complex dates back over several other cultures to the Moche and before into BC times.
    With 26 total structures, two of which pyramids containing two of the richest unlooted tombs ever excavated in the Western Hemisphere, Túcume is a vast site occupying 550 acres over ten square miles. It is surrounded by fertile agricultural land thanks to the Taymi canal, considered the most important ancient irrigation work on the north coast of Peru, which was constructed around the same time as the pyramids.
    This irrigation system serviced the Mochica at Cerro Luya and passed through what are today the districts of Pátapo, Picsi and Mesones Muro in the Lambayeque region, suppying the sectors of Ferreñafe, Mochumi, Túcume, and Mórrope.
    The most prominent structures that have been uncovered at this time are the pyramids of Huaca Larga and Huaca One, along with the U-shaped “Temple of the Sacred Stone.” Many of the structures have been altered from their original form by later civilizations in order to suit their needs or styles. For example, all alterations from the Chimú period are painted in red, white, and black and several contain religious murals. This decorative style is consistent with other important Chimú sites such as Chan Chan near modern-day Trujillo, 152 miles away.
    Túcume went largely unstudied until the famous ethnographer Thor Heyerdahl took an interest in the site starting in 1988. He and his team unearthed many important artifacts from tombs and other areas within the pyramids. They were the first group to truly appreciate the importance of the site by thoroughly analyzing their findings and attempting to reconstruct the history of how the site was used by its inhabitants.

One of the enormous pyramids at Túcume

The site of Túcume has always possessed a special sacred importance to the people of the area, a reverence which has been passed down to the present day by local shamans. This was shown by Thor Heyerdahl’s team when they demonstrated the continual usage of the site, implying that ascendant cultures recognized the holiness of sacred places built by previous cultures and continued to maintain the same respect. Like many cultures in the vicinity of the Andes, the cultures which inhabited Túcume believed that each mountain peak was inhabited by a special spirit protecting the local people. Since pyramids were considered to be replicas of mountains, they were thought to possess this same power. The shamans, or curanderos, of the Lambayeque Valley still invoke this power during ceremonies, and the grounds of Túcume inspire awe among the local people–many of whom are afraid to enter the site at night.

Cerro La Raya, or Hill LaRaya, also known locally as Cerro Purgatorio (Purgatory Hill)

The local name for Túcume is Purgatorio, which is the Spanish word for Purgatory. How the site got this name is somewhat hazy, but local legend tells of Spanish colonists lighting massive fires to terrorize the local population, claiming that Túcume was the gate to Purgatory. Other stories recall Catholic priests who flung indigenous people from the cliff of Cerro Purgatorio (also known as Cerra La Raya) as punishment for not accepting Christianity.
    This hill is of central religious importance, and it was likely the inspiration for the whole site. There is evidence of ritual fires taking place at the top of the pyramids so there is speculation that the Spanish conflated this local practice with their own beliefs about the cleansing fires of Purgatory, giving the site its common name.

These once solid and straight vertical mud-bricks have deteriorated over time due to weather, especially torrential downpours

Due to the fragility of the mud-brick construction material, the site is particularly vulnerable to aggressive weather patterns and has eroded over the centuries from exposure to the elements and natural disasters. Heavy rains and strong winds have contributed to the deterioration of the site, reducing building volume and damaging painted murals. Protection and maintenance of Túcume are crucial to preserving the legacy of the Lambayeque culture, as well as the other previous inhabitants of the site.
    Nestled in a forest of old carob trees and a tropical climate along the lower part of the valley of La Leche, the Túcume pyramid Huaca Larga is the largest structure in the region, measuring 2,297-feet in length, 886-feet in width, and 98-feet in height, making it the longest mud-brick structure in the world. These truncated pyramids were finely decorated, with murals that represented their deity and images of the sea, illustrating the fine craftsmanship of the time. They were also excellent engineers, building canals to bring water to this arid area from distant water sources. In addition, the pyramids were arranged in the same way as the surrounding mountains, and have a footpath up the hill to a lookout with expansive views over the landscape, locally called the Valley of the Pyramids.
    These enormous truncated structures were residential palaces that inhabited an aristocratic elite that was dedicated mainly to agriculture, converting the La Leche valley into the largest hydraulic complex on the coast. One is known as Pampa Grande and was built about the same time as the pyramid of Pampa Grande, known as Huaca Fortaleza, which reaches 165-feet high, and measuring 656-feet in width. Though much of the structure remains intact, visually, it is not all that impressive. The next complex was that of Batan Grande, which had 34 pyramids, including the Huaca de Oro (Pyramid of Gold), in front of which a series of royal tombs were located. The pyramids are now badly eroded, due to El Niño rains in 1982 and 1998. But the biggest destruction to the site was man-made when the pyramid was burnt and the town abandoned, to be succeeded by Túcume.

The area of the Lambayeque Region stretching from Chiclayo on the coast inland and northeast to include Túcume, Cerro Luya and Pampa Grande

Túcume lies on the southern margin of the valley and is surrounded by fertile agricultural land, thanks to the Taymi canal, which brings water northwards from the Chancay River. The construction of the 27-mile long canal coincided with the settlement of Túcume, the Huaca Larga, Huaca One and the U-shaped “Temple of the Sacred Stone.”
(See the next post, “The Magnificent Pyramid Complex at Túcume – Part II,” regarding the pyramic complex or series of 26 close-packed pyramids in the Lambayeque region, all dating to before the Moche)