It should be noted that the distribution of several cereal
and other crop progenitors, reported that these intersect in a small region of
southeastern Turkey, near the claimed landing site of Noah’s Arc and the
development of his settlement after landing.
In addition, Lehi’s colony brought barley and wheat to the
Land of Promise, and though they traveled some 8 years in the wilderness, they
still had their seeds when they reached the Land of Promise.
As soon as they reached the Land of Promise
they tilled the ground and planted all their seeds brought from Jerusalem
As Nephi states: “we did begin to till the earth, and we began to plant seeds; yea, we did put
all our seeds into the earth, which we
had brought from the land of Jerusalem” (1 Nephi 18:24, emphasis added). We
also learn from Nephi that these seeds grew extremely well. ” And it came to
pass that they did grow exceedingly;
wherefore, we were blessed in abundance”
(1 Nephi 18:24, emphasis added).
Some of their seeds they brought were grains. As Mormon
wrote: “And we began to till the ground, yea, even with all manner of seeds, with seeds of corn, and of wheat, and of
barley, and with neas, and with sheum, and with seeds of all manner of
fruits” (Mosiah 9:9, emphasis added).
• Barley, then, is specifically mentioned by name as one of the
cereals raised by Zeniff's colony (Mosiah 7:22) and apparently was a standard
upon which the Nephite monetary system was based: "A senum of silver was
equal to a senine of gold, and either for a measure of barley, and also for a
measure of every kind of grain" (Alma 11:7;11:15). Interestingly, barley
also appears to have been a standard for biblical monetary systems as well:
"Two barley grains made a finger's breadth, 16 made a hand's breadth, 24 a
span, and 48 were the biblical cubit—about 41 cm" (Leviticus 27:16; 2
Kings 7:1, 16, 18).
Barley crop
Western agriculture and its most important crop plants are
thought to have originated in the Fertile Crescent, a geographical region
extending from modern-day Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and western Syria into
southeastern Turkey and along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers into Iraq and
Iran.
These plants included wild progenitors of modern cereal
species, among them wild barley (Hordeum
spontaneum), wild wheats (Triticum
urartu, T. boeoticum,
T. dicoccoides, Aegilops tauschii), and wild rye (S. vavilovii), intersect in this
region.
Barley
was a founder crop (basic, staple crop) of Old World Neolithic
food production and is still one of the main cereals cultivated in the
Mediterranean agricultural belt. In the archaeological record, barley
is commonly found with wheat. It appears to have been "the most
abundant grain of the ancient Near East and the cheapest. It was
the standard fare of the poor, the ration of the soldier, serf and slave,
and the staff of life for the Greek peasantry.
food production and is still one of the main cereals cultivated in the
Mediterranean agricultural belt. In the archaeological record, barley
is commonly found with wheat. It appears to have been "the most
abundant grain of the ancient Near East and the cheapest. It was
the standard fare of the poor, the ration of the soldier, serf and slave,
and the staff of life for the Greek peasantry.
Michasel Zohary reports that barley is mentioned more than thirty
times in the Bible and no fewer than thirteen timed in company with
wheat. However, barley was considered inferior to wheat for human
consumption and was less valued (Revelations 6:6). Consequently, it
became the poor people's bread.
times in the Bible and no fewer than thirteen timed in company with
wheat. However, barley was considered inferior to wheat for human
consumption and was less valued (Revelations 6:6). Consequently, it
became the poor people's bread.
The advantage barley has
over wheat is that it will grow in relatively poor, salty, and arid soils in
which wheat may not grow. Moreover, since barley ripens a month or more before
wheat, it provided the first new flour each year, and in fact was apparently
taken for the Omer.
The Passover meal in an ancient Jewish home
Offerings, סְפִירַת הָעוֹמֶר, at the Passover
feast. This offering is an important verbal counting of each of the forty-nine days
starting with the Sunday Wave Offering
of a sheaf of ripe grain with a sacrifice immediately following the
commencement רֵאשִׁית.
For
these reasons, even though wheat is more palatable, barley
was perhaps a more important crop in ancient Israel. Jack Harlan
observes that barley was apparently domesticated from its wild
relative Hordeum spontaneum, commonly known as wild barley or
spontaneous barley, is found today in southwestern Asia and was
one of the earliest crops domesticated in the Near East. Wild
forms with fragile ears (seed heads) have been found in Syria
and date to perhaps as early as 8000 BC. Similar remains have
been found in the southern Jordan highlands, dating to about
BC, and at Jarmo and the Zargos hills in Iraq around the same time.
was perhaps a more important crop in ancient Israel. Jack Harlan
observes that barley was apparently domesticated from its wild
relative Hordeum spontaneum, commonly known as wild barley or
spontaneous barley, is found today in southwestern Asia and was
one of the earliest crops domesticated in the Near East. Wild
forms with fragile ears (seed heads) have been found in Syria
and date to perhaps as early as 8000 BC. Similar remains have
been found in the southern Jordan highlands, dating to about
BC, and at Jarmo and the Zargos hills in Iraq around the same time.
The
first cultivated barley appears in Iran, Syria, Palestine, and
Turkey at times ranging between 6000 and 7000 BC and is commonly
found with remains of other important crops such as emmer wheat,
einkorn grain, flax, peas, and lentils. Irrigated barley was present by
Turkey at times ranging between 6000 and 7000 BC and is commonly
found with remains of other important crops such as emmer wheat,
einkorn grain, flax, peas, and lentils. Irrigated barley was present by
6000 BC and possibly earlier at Jericho. Zohary
likewise concludes
that the cultivation of barley appears to have begun about 8000 BC
in southwestern Asia, where the wild progenitor of the two-rowed
barley (Hordeum spontanum) is widespread. Later, the more advanced
six-rowed primitive types of cultivated barley were derived under
domestication.
that the cultivation of barley appears to have begun about 8000 BC
in southwestern Asia, where the wild progenitor of the two-rowed
barley (Hordeum spontanum) is widespread. Later, the more advanced
six-rowed primitive types of cultivated barley were derived under
domestication.
The
species of barley Lehi and his family would have known are
limited. Eighteen species of barley are recognized today, but only
two, Hordeum distichum (two-rowed barley), and H. hexastichum
(six-rowed barley) have been cultivated.
limited. Eighteen species of barley are recognized today, but only
two, Hordeum distichum (two-rowed barley), and H. hexastichum
(six-rowed barley) have been cultivated.
Barley ears have a unique
structure. There are awns on the stem,
which are the hair- or bristle-like appendage on a larger structure,
and can contribute significantly to photosynthesis. The lemma is
translucent and either the central or lateral spikelets may terminate
hood. They also contain triplets of spikelets arranged alternately
on the rachis (axis of the barley ears containing spikelets). According
to the morphology of the spikelets, barley under domestication can
be divided into two principal types:
which are the hair- or bristle-like appendage on a larger structure,
and can contribute significantly to photosynthesis. The lemma is
translucent and either the central or lateral spikelets may terminate
hood. They also contain triplets of spikelets arranged alternately
on the rachis (axis of the barley ears containing spikelets). According
to the morphology of the spikelets, barley under domestication can
be divided into two principal types:
Two-rowed
varieties of barley usually have a higher number of stem or tillers per plant
and larger, heavier seed than six-rowed varieties. Six-rowed varieties on the
other hand, usually have more seeds per inflorescence
•
Two-rowed forms, traditionally called
Hordeum distichum L., in which
only the median spikelet in each triplet is fertile and usually armed
with a prominent awn (or beard—bristles that protrude upward
from the spikelets). The two lateral spikelets are reduced, they are
born on longer stalks and are grainless and awnless. Each ear thus
contains only two rows of fertile spikelets.
only the median spikelet in each triplet is fertile and usually armed
with a prominent awn (or beard—bristles that protrude upward
from the spikelets). The two lateral spikelets are reduced, they are
born on longer stalks and are grainless and awnless. Each ear thus
contains only two rows of fertile spikelets.
•
Six-rowed forms, traditionally
referred to as H. hexastichum L., in
which the three spikelets in each triplet bear seeds and usually all
are armed. Ears in these varieties therefore have six rows of fertile
spikelets. Lehi and his family would probably have brought one or
perhaps both of these barley species with them on their journey to
the New World.
which the three spikelets in each triplet bear seeds and usually all
are armed. Ears in these varieties therefore have six rows of fertile
spikelets. Lehi and his family would probably have brought one or
perhaps both of these barley species with them on their journey to
the New World.
2.
Corn/Maize. Although corn is a general term used to refer to
grain
or kernels of grain in the King James Version of the Bible (Genesis 41:5;
Exodus 22:6; Isaiah 28:28), when corn is referred to in the Book of
Mormon (Mosiah 7:22; 9:9, 14), we assume that Joseph Smith was
referring to maize or corn as it is known in America today and that
the Prophet Joseph Smith was not using the term in the generic biblical
sense. This is perhaps evidenced in Mosiah 9:9: "And we began
or kernels of grain in the King James Version of the Bible (Genesis 41:5;
Exodus 22:6; Isaiah 28:28), when corn is referred to in the Book of
Mormon (Mosiah 7:22; 9:9, 14), we assume that Joseph Smith was
referring to maize or corn as it is known in America today and that
the Prophet Joseph Smith was not using the term in the generic biblical
sense. This is perhaps evidenced in Mosiah 9:9: "And we began
to till the ground, yea, even with all manner of
seeds, with seeds of
corn, and of wheat, and of barley, and with neas, and with sheum,
and with seeds of all manner of fruits; and we did begin to multiply
and prosper in the land."
corn, and of wheat, and of barley, and with neas, and with sheum,
and with seeds of all manner of fruits; and we did begin to multiply
and prosper in the land."
Quinoa and kiwicha are two very important
grains in Peru, which were unknown in the U.S. in Joseph Smith’s time
As
previously mentioned, the appearance in this passage of the Nephite
terms neas and sheum suggests that Joseph Smith was not familiar
with the plants to which these two words referred and so he left the
terms in their original language. In contrast, he would have been
amply familiar with wheat, barley, and maize, or "corn," as he would
have called it, and accordingly translated the Nephite terms for these
grains into English.
terms neas and sheum suggests that Joseph Smith was not familiar
with the plants to which these two words referred and so he left the
terms in their original language. In contrast, he would have been
amply familiar with wheat, barley, and maize, or "corn," as he would
have called it, and accordingly translated the Nephite terms for these
grains into English.
Maize
is a New World plant first domesticated in the Americas,
possibly in more than one area. It is generally believed that maize
originated in Mexico and was domesticated from wild maize
(teosinte) in south central or southwestern Mexico in semiarid
regions at elevations above 4,500 feet. By comparison, the
following highest heights of the states within the Heartland
and Great Lakes theories are: Illinois 1234 feet, Indiana 1257,
Iowa 1670, Ohio 1549, Missouri 1772, Pennsylvania 3213, New
possibly in more than one area. It is generally believed that maize
originated in Mexico and was domesticated from wild maize
(teosinte) in south central or southwestern Mexico in semiarid
regions at elevations above 4,500 feet. By comparison, the
following highest heights of the states within the Heartland
and Great Lakes theories are: Illinois 1234 feet, Indiana 1257,
Iowa 1670, Ohio 1549, Missouri 1772, Pennsylvania 3213, New
York 5344, Michigan 1979, Wisconsin 1951, Kentucky 4145, and
Tennessee 6643. Two states are over 4500 feet necessary for the
growth of Corn.
Tennessee 6643. Two states are over 4500 feet necessary for the
growth of Corn.
New
York’s mean elevation is 1000 feet, with one mountain range,
the Adirondack Mountains, at 5344 feet. It is located in the northeast
corner of the state and not within the lands claimed to be the Land of
Promise. Tennessee is also above the barley grain level, but city
development is limited to 2418 feet. The height in Tennessee is
limited to the southwestern corner of the state.
the Adirondack Mountains, at 5344 feet. It is located in the northeast
corner of the state and not within the lands claimed to be the Land of
Promise. Tennessee is also above the barley grain level, but city
development is limited to 2418 feet. The height in Tennessee is
limited to the southwestern corner of the state.
Therefore, not a single state has a land level of development for
planting that is anywhere near the 4500 feet level indicate being
where corn/maize originated (Christine A. Hastorf, “Rio Balsas
most likely region for maize domestication,” PNAS vol.106, no.13,
March 2009, pp4957-4958; Anthoiny J. Ranere et al., “The cultural
and chronological context of early Holocene maize and squash
domestication in the Central Balsas River Valley, Mexico,” PNAS,
vol.106, no.13, pp5014-5018; both articles Edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff,
University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology, Philadelphia, PA, and approved January 23, 2009).
planting that is anywhere near the 4500 feet level indicate being
where corn/maize originated (Christine A. Hastorf, “Rio Balsas
most likely region for maize domestication,” PNAS vol.106, no.13,
March 2009, pp4957-4958; Anthoiny J. Ranere et al., “The cultural
and chronological context of early Holocene maize and squash
domestication in the Central Balsas River Valley, Mexico,” PNAS,
vol.106, no.13, pp5014-5018; both articles Edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff,
University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology, Philadelphia, PA, and approved January 23, 2009).
(See
the next post, “All Our Seed and Grains – Part II,” for additional
information regarding the seeds brought to the Land of Promise by Lehi)
information regarding the seeds brought to the Land of Promise by Lehi)
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