Where are the Mountains whose Height is Great in the Heartland and Great Lakes Models?

The Catskill Mountains, claimed by Great Lakes theorists such as Phyllis Carol Olive, Jonathon Neville and others, as the mountains spoken of in the Book of Mormon, are far from matching the mountains described by Mormon. They certainly do not match the description of Samuel the Lamanite when he says they will become mountains “whose height is great” (Helaman 14:23).

The Catskills are in southeastern New York, just west of the Massachusetts and Connecticut borders, northwest of Kington and 90 miles from New York city. They are part of the low ranges that separate the eastern seaboard and the interior of the eastern lands.

Geologically, the Catskills are a mature dissected plateau, a once-flat region subsequently uplifted and eroded into sharp relief by watercourses. The Catskills form the northeastern end of, and highest-elevation portion of the Allegheny Plateau (also known as the Appalachian Plateau). Although the Catskills are sometimes compared with the Adirondack Mountains further north, the two mountain ranges are not geologically related, as the Adirondacks are a continuation of the Canadian Shield.

Top: Slide Mountain in the Catskills; Bottom: Mount Marcy in the Adirondacks

 

The highest peak in the Catskill Mountains is Slide Mountain at 4,180-feet; however, between the mountain’s base and its peak is only 2736’, because the base is at 1444’, which when speaking of mountains, is not much higher than a hill. As an example, the Rockies top out at 14,440-feet, more than four times higher than the Catskills. In addition, these mountains are not even in the Nephite lands of the Heartland or Great Lakes maps, starting just west of the Hudson River and moving toward southwestern Albany.

Mt. Marcy along the Richelieu River in the Adirondacks, which form a massif in northeastern New York state, between that and Vermont, lies along the coast of Lake Champlain, north of Albany, and so far north it nearly reaches the St. Lawrence River. This peak reaches 5,344 feet, making it the tallest mountain in New York. Again, however, when looking at the level of the surrounding elevation of the land at 1,950 feet, Mt. Marcy, base to peak, is only 3,394 feet high.

Speaking of this falling of mountains at the time of the crucifixion, Nephi wrote: “And it came to pass that I saw a mist of darkness on the face of the land of promise; and I saw lightnings, and I heard thunderings, and earthquakes, and all manner of tumultuous noises; and I saw the earth and the rocks, that they rent; and I saw mountains tumbling into pieces; and I saw the plains of the earth, that they were broken up; and I saw many cities that they were sunk; and I saw many that they were burned with fire; and I saw many that did tumble to the earth, because of the quaking thereof” (1 Nephi 12:4, emphasis added).

Now “tumble” is defined as “To fall; to come down suddenly and violently,” thus we see that the calamities that befell the Land of Promise at the time of Christ’s death were swift and violent!

Similarly, the Shawangunk Ridge, which forms the southeastern edge of the Catskills, is part of the geologically distinct Ridge-and-Valley province, and is a continuation of the same ridge known as Kittatinny Mountain in New Jersey and Blue Mountain in Pennsylvania. The term mature dissected plateau means they are very old and eroded. How did they get eroded if they came up at the time of Christ? They didn't because they came up much earlier. So these mountains do not fit the description given in the Book of Mormon.

 Andes mountains

 

“And behold, there shall be great tempests, and there shall be many mountains laid low, like unto a valley, and there shall be many places which are now called valleys which shall become Mountains whose height is great (Helaman 14:23). Speaking of this, Nephi stated that he saw in his vision, that “For thus spake the prophet: The Lord God surely shall visit all the house of Israel at that day, some with his voice, because of their righteousness, unto their great joy and salvation, and others with the thunderings and the lightnings of his power, by tempest, by fire, and by smoke, and vapor of darkness, and by the opening of the earth, and by mountains which shall be carried up” (1 Nephi 19:11)

Now how does this fit the Catskills? Or any of the mountains where you say they lived? I don't see any. We have to exclude the Rocky Mountains because the Nephites were not living there at the time. The only place where mountains came up recently is in South America. Even Charles Darwin said this in his writings aboard the Beagle on his voyage around South America.

To the south of these ranges and part of the Appalachian Mountains are the Smokies in eastern Tennessee and North Carolina. Clingmans Dome is the highest point in the Smokies.  At 6,644 feet, the mountain is in North Carolina, across the border from Knoxville. The elevation at the base of the mountain is 1,752 feet, making the mountain base to peak 4,892 feet.

East of Knoxville, Tennessee, are the Blue Ridge Mountains which stretch as far south as Georgia, with Mount Mitchell the highest peak of the Appalachian Mountains and the highest peak in mainland eastern North America. It is located near Burnsville in Yancey County, North Carolina, in the Black Mountain subrange of the Appalachians. It is about 19 miles northeast of Asheville. The elevation of the mountain base is 4,718 feet, providing a mountain from base to peak of only 1,966 feet.

Nothing of this fits the Heartland model.

Top: Mount Heyburn in central Idaho; Left: Thompson Peak in Idaho; Right: King’s Peak in Utah

 

Compare this to Mount Heyburn at 10,299 feet in the Sawtooth Mountains of central Idaho northeast of Boise; or Thompson Peak at 10,751 feet also in the Sawtooth Mountains of Idaho, a little southeast of Mount Heyburn; or King’s Peak at 13,534 in the Uinta Mountain Range in Utah, 79 miles east of Salt Lake City. All three of these mountains, not the highest in the Rockies, show vertical mountains, not the rounded tops of the mountains in the east—The Sawatch Range is a high and extensive mountain range in central Colorado which includes eight of the twenty highest peaks in the Rocky Mountains, including Mount Elbert, at 14,440 feet elevation.

On the other hand, in South America there are truly mountains whose height is great, with the highest mountains in the Western Hemisphere. The Andes have 230 peaks higher than 18,000 feet, 71 peaks higher than 20,000 and 8 peaks higher than 22,000. The Andes are truly mountains “whose height is great.”

It should be noted that nowhere within the bounds of the mapped areas of the Book of Mormon in either the Heartland or Great Lakes theories do we find mountains “whose height is great.”

Oliver Cowdery, Cumorah, and the Heartland Theory – Part II

Continuing with the previous post regarding Oliver Cowdery’s elaborate language in his writing about the location and events of the battle at Cumorah.

Oliver Cowdery, who was, at one-time a school teacher with a flair for writing, was well known to embellish facts and the truth. He also had a noticeable ego. As an example, in the first letter to William W. Phelps, he seems unduly concerned to present himself as a writer of high sensibility who will tell of events that “may be entertaining” to Church members. In standard sentimental fashion, he first exhibits himself in a contemplative mood, poised to set pen to paper:

Cowdery’s rhetorical flourishes carried over into a way of describing events that put himself in the forefront. His feelings and thoughts are always on display, making the story more Oliver’s than Joseph’s. “Not only have I been graciously preserved from wicked and unreasonable men, with this our brother,” he writes, “but I have seen the fruit of perseverance in proclaiming the everlasting gospel.” When John the Baptist appeared, “I received baptism, by the direction of the angel of God—the first received into this church, in this day” (Dean C. Jessee, ed., The Papers of Joseph Smith. Deseret Book, Salt Lake City, 1989–92, pp28–29.

The New York hill Cumorah is a simple drumlin hill (Irish meaning “Little Ridge), one of many in New York, a low lying deposit of till and glacial drift, left over from a melting glacier

 

A single sentence was sufficient for Joseph to tell everything about the temptation of riches, but Oliver devoted six pages to the struggle with greed. It took 221 words  or Mormon to tell about the battle at Cumorah, but Cowdery needed 1,041words to cover it.  As an example, Codery writes:

“The aged, whose silver locks in other places, and at other times, would command reverence; the mother, who, in other circumstances would be spared from violence—the infant, whose tender cries would be regarded and listened to with a feeling of compassion and tenderness— and the virgin, whose grace, beauty, and modesty, would be esteemed and held inviolate by all good men and enlightened nations, were alike disregarded and treated with scorn!”(Last 1/3 of Letter VII). None of which is in the scriptural record.

Nor was the following of Cowdery’s writing: “In vain did the hoary head and man of gray hairs ask for mercy— in vain did the mother plead for compassion—in vain did the help­less and harmless infant weep for very anguish— and in vain did the virgin seek to escape the ruthless hand of revengeful foes and demons in human form— all alike were trampled down by the feet of the feet of the strong, and crushed beneath the rage of battle and war!”

While Cowdery’s writing is certainly entertaining, it simply is not found in Mormon’s writings in the scriptural record. In other words, when reading Oliver Cowdery’s writings we are reading his opinion of events—not Mormon’s description. The same can be said about his claim in Letter VII that the battle at Cumorah took place in western New York state since there is nothing to warrant such a claim. Nor do the descriptions of the hill Mormon give us a match with the hill Cowdery describes in his Letter VII.

Cowdery wrote: “At about one mile west rises another ridge of less height, running parallel with the former, leaving a beautiful vale be­tween…which gives a prospect at once im­posing, when one reflects on the fact, that here, between these hills, the entire power and national strength of both the Jaredites and Nephites were destroyed.”

Cowdery claims the entire battle took place in the small vale to the west of the hill in a valley only one mile wide and a mile and a half long 

 

Now, this area is only about one-mile-wide and a mile-and-a-half in length. It would be extremely difficult for the 230,000 Nephite warriors plus women and children, and about 400,000 Lamanites to hold such a battle—there simply would not have been enough room in this little valley for the battle Cowdery writes about and Mormon describes. Besides, Mormon tells us the Nephites: “did march forth to the land of Cumorah, and we did pitch our tents around about the hill Cumorah” (Mormon 6:4, emphasis added).

Now “around” means: “About; on all sides; encircling; encompassing,” and “about” means “Around; on the exterior part or surface.” Obviously, the Nephites surrounded the hill and the following batter took place all around the hill Cumorah, not in one little valley that Cowdery describes.

The hill Cumorah in western New York is only 110-feet high

 

Another discrepancy in the New York hill Cumorah and the Book of Mormon hill Cumorah, is the height of the hill. Mormon writes about standing on the top of the hill and looking out over the battlefield the next morning and seeing the carnage of death of 230,000-plus Nephites and an untold number of Lamanites. First of all, the height of this hill at its highest, is a mere 110-feet high. The point is, if there were survivors of the initial battle that destroyed 230,000 Nephites, the Lamanites in overrunning this low hill with an easily accessible top up a gentle slope, would have easily uncovered such Nephites and destroyed them.

Top: The gentle slope up the New York hill Cumorah; Bottom: Another view of the gentle slope. Note the placement of the Moroni marker on both hills

 

In addition, Mormon tells us that the Nephites occupied the ground around the base of the hill Cumorah, which makes it most likely that the Lamanites would have overrun the entire hill and attacked those remaining on the other side from the rear. There would have been no place for Mormon, Moroni and the other 22 survivors to have hidden from the blood-crazed attackers to be alive the next morning.

Thus, nothing about this New York hill would have impeded the Lamanites in their effort to kill every Nephite at Cumorah. After all, they killed 230,000 plus women and children—it is obvious they did not want to leave anyone alive. Overrunning this small hill would not only have been a simple matter, but one that was necessary for the Lamanites to complete their massacre and bring an end to their long-time enemy, the Nephites. 

A crazed military force, bent on the total destruction of their enemy would have been able to easily ascend this hill from end to end to rout out any Nephites that had been missed earlier

 

Another problem that faced the early members was the fact that the plates were buried in this New York hill at the time Joseph Smith was visited by Moroni. This led to members making the assumption that Moroni originally buried them in the hill Cumorah and they had lain there for 1600 years. However, there 

is nothing about this that suggests that Moroni originally buried the plates at Cumorah for the many reasons already discussed. The point is, Oliver Cowdery's Letter VII is not and cannot be accepted as doctrinal, nor used to try and prove a point. From the scriptural record we cannot say where the Hill Cumorah was located or whether there were one or two Cumoths, like there were two Bountifuls, or that Moroni buried the record at Cumorah, since he was alive for 36 years after the carnage at Cumotah as he traveled around tryng to avoid the thousands of Lamanites who would kill him on sight.

Oliver Cowdery, Cumorah, and the Heartland Theory – Part I

 

Oliver Cowdery, Cumorah, and the Heartland Theory – Part I

Many modern-day theorists claim that the hill Cumorah in western New York is the same hill Cumorah mentioned in the Book of Mormon. However, like the disparity in the mountains, the New York hill Cumorah has few characteristics of that mountain in the Land of Promise.

First of all, these theorists all claim that the hill Cumorah in New York is where Moroni buried the plates; however, at no time is this written in the scriptural record. It is merely assumed by these theorists. What Moroni actually said, 36 years after the brutal battle at Cumorah, which ended the Nephite Nation, is: “Therefore I will write and hide up the records in the earth” (Mormon 8:4). He does not say where he will hide them, or where in the earth that hiding place will be.

The chances Moroni would still be around the hill Cumorah where at least 300,000 people died—and likely many more—is unrealistic given the fact that the Lamanites did not bury any of the dead at Cumorah. In fact, Moroni writes about this. Speaking of the dead, they “had fallen; and their flesh, and bones, and blood lay upon the face of the earth, being left by the hands of those who slew them to molder upon the land, and to crumble and to return to their mother earth” (Mormon 6:15).

Moroni hiding the plates in the ground

 

This is Moroni, the same who said: “I am the same who hideth up this record unto the Lord” (Mormon 8:14). And again, “Therefore, I will write and hide up the records in the earth; and whither I go it mattereth not” (Mormon 8:4, emphasis added).
And in another statement: “I wander whithersoever I can for the safety of mine own life” (Moroni 1:3, emphasis added). It simply did not matter to Moroni where he went and where he would be when he hid the record in the earth. Obviously, he could not stay arount the rotting corpses of more than 300,000 people scattered across the Cumorah battle site—the smell alone would have been staggering. Not to mention all the predators that would have been drawn to the area.

In addition, in the immediate area of the Land of Cumorah, a civil war broke out among the Lamanites: “behold also, the Lamanites are at war one with another; and the whole face of this land is one continual round of murder and bloodshed; and no one knoweth the end of the war” (Mormon 8:8). Obviously, Moroni would not have stayed near Cumorah due to this war, which was so broadly fought with hundreds of thousands of Lamanites involved, and willing to kill anyone who was not of their tribe.

There is simply no reason to claim that Moroni buried the plates in a specific place, especially in the hill Cumorah. After all, the hill in New York was not even called the hill Cumorah until members of the early Church began to call it such. Others called it Mormon Hill, and Gold Bible Hill. In addition, it is unlikely that Oliver Cowdery in his Letter VII, had any inspiration regarding this doubtful. It is well known among scholars that Oliver’s overwrought verbosity, his penchant for “rhetorical flourishes” which make “the story more Oliver’s than Joseph’s,” his telltale “flowery journalese,” and his ”florid romantic language“ have been noted by careful readers.

While there is no official declaration by Joseph Smith or any other leader that this New York hill was the same as the one in the Book of Mormon, Oliver makes certain to tie the two together in the most specious verbose manner.

The Three Witnesses see the Gold Plates

 

First of all, Oliver Cowdery, along with David Whitmer and Martin Harris, signed an official document in which they became known as the Three Witnesses, that they had seen the plates which contained the record, a statement that has appeared in almost every publication of the Book of Mormon, yet no such indication is given by these or other men regarding the Hill Cumorah. In addition, Cowdery’s letters to William W. Phelps, an experienced editor and contributor for the first Church newspapers, especially Letter VII, was not written by Joseph Smith, it was never published under the supervision of Joseph Smith, it was  never canonized, and contains factual errors and embellishments.

In 1834 and 1835, with the help of Joseph, Cowdery published a contribution to an anticipated "full history of the rise of the church of Latter Day Saints" as a series of articles in the church's Messenger and Advocate. This became the famed Letters I through VIII that Cowdery wrote to W.W. Phelps; however, his version was not entirely congruent with the later official history of the church (letter from W. W. Phelps to Oliver Cowdery, December 25, 1834, EMD, 3: 28; Arthur Henry King, The Abundance of the Heart, Bookcraft, Salt Lake City, 1986), p204).

For instance, Cowdery ignored the First Vision but described an angel (rather than God or Jesus) who called Joseph to his work in September 1823. He placed the religious revival that inspired Joseph in 1823 (rather than 1820) and stated that this revival experience had caused Joseph to pray in his bedroom (rather than the woods of the official history) (Grant Palmer, An Insider's View of Mormon Origins, Signature Books, Salt Lake Cit, 2002, p239; Richard Abanes, One Nation Under God: A History of the Mormon Church, Four Walls Eight Windows, New York, p2002).

Further, after first asserting that the revival had occurred in 1821, when Joseph was in his "fifteenth year," Cowdery corrected the date to 1823 and stated that it was in Joseph’s 17th year (though 1823 was actually Joseph’s 18th year). Cowdery said that the final battle between the Nephites and Lamanites had occurred in the vicinity of the Hill Cumorah, where Joseph found the golden plates. However, there is little evidence for mass graves or huge decomposition of former bodies of tens of thousands of warriors and families at the site. Many modern Mormon historians now argue that the events likely took place in Central America (Messenger and Advocate, 1, no. 3, December 1834, 42, pp78-79. "You will recollect that I mentioned the time of a religious excitement, in Palmyra and vicinity to have been in the 15th year of Joseph’s age—that was an error in the type—it should have been in the 17th—You will please remember this correction, as it will be necessary for the full understanding of what will follow in time. This would bring the date down to the year 1823” (Richard L. Bushman, Oliver’s Joseph: Days Never to be Forgotten, Alexander L. Baugh, Editor, BYU Religious Studies Center, Provo, 2009; Davidson et al., eds., The Joseph Smith Papers: Histories, Volume 1, p38).

The fact is that Oliver, while attractive and intelligent, did not have the rocklike qualities of Brigham Young or Wilford Woodruff. He wavered; he waxed hot and cold. His record reinforces the sense that Joseph had to work with the people who came his way. He was not given giants to help him build the kingdom. The early converts were good-hearted, spiritually sensitive souls with very human flaws, Oliver among them. Joseph had to build his own giants using the human materials that happened to be drawn into the Restoration.

Oliver's Church career peaked from 1834 to 1836. Minutes and letters picture him as a highly effective preacher, writer, and administrator. Brigham Young added that Oliver impetuously proceeded without Joseph's permission, not knowing "the order and pattern and the results" (Charles Walker Journal entry, July 26, 1872, Church Archives). Professionally, Cowdery was characterized as "an able lawyer," well informed, with "brilliant" speaking ability; yet "he was modest and reserved, never spoke ill of anyone, never complained" (Richard Lloyd Anderson, Investigating the Book of Mormon Witnesses, Deseret Book, Salt Lake City, 1981, 1989, p41).

(See the next post, “Oliver Cowdery, Cumorah, and the Heartland Theory – Part II,” regarding Oliver Cowdery and his writing about the location and events of the battle at Cumorah)

A Look at the Andes Mountains

Northern Peru generally has the same seasons as southern Peru, where one encounters different seasons and weather patterns whether visiting the coast, the Andes, or the Amazon. Generally speaking, the combination of tropical latitude, mountain ranges, topography variations and two ocean currents (Humboldt and El Niño) gives Peru a large diversity of climates. The country has a tropical climate with a wet and dry season.

The three regions of Peru

 

The eastern portions of Peru include the Amazon Basin, or selva baja, a region that is larger in the north than in the south, and represents roughly 60% of Peru's national territory. This area includes the Amazon, Marañón, Huallaga and Ucayali rivers. About 60% of the country's area is located within this region (270,000 square miles) giving Peru the fourth largest area of tropical forest in the world after Brazil, Congo and Indonesia.

Within Peru, the desert is described as the strip along the northern Pacific coast of Peru in the southern Piura and western Lambayeque regions, and extending from the coast 12 to 62 miles inland to the secondary ridges of the Andes Mountains.

The country can be divided into three main climatic and topographical regions: The Coast, the Andes, and the Jungle.

• The Coast. Stretching along the coast, from the Tumbes in the north bordering Ecuador, to Tacna in the south bordering Chile, a length of 1,555 miles is an arid, dry climate. The width of this narrow area varies from 12 to 62 miles and always has great weather. During Peruvian summer time (December, January) it can be really hot, but otherwise, the weather is mild, warm and sunny.

The northern coast has a curious tropical-dry climate, generally referred to asa tropical savanna. This region is a lot warmer and can be unbearable during summer months, where rainfall is also present. The region differs from the southern coast by the presence of shrubs, equatorial dry forests (Thumbes-Piura dry forests) mangrove forests, tropical valleys near rivers such as the Chira and the Thumbes.

The central and southern coast consists mainly of a subtropical desert climate composed of sandy or rocky shores and inland cutting valleys. Days alternate between overcast skies with occasional fog in the winter and sunny skies with occasional haze in the summer.

Sechura Desert occupies 72,900 square miles from the shoreline to the secondary ridges of the western Andes. In the north lies the Northwestern Biosphere Reserve, which includes four natural protected areas of red mangrove and Equatorial Dry Forests. To the south are a series of arable valleys that have provided food in this area long before Columbian times.

The Sechura Desert

 

The wild, vegetated and relatively wet Sechura desert is located along the coast just south of Piura in the northwestern part of Peru, between the northern border and Peru's equatorial forests, the Tumbes. The landscape is of flailing-armed cacti, spiny succulents like giant artichokes and sand dunes like mountains. Peru’s coast is home to one of the most barren, most imposing deserts known.  Miles and miles of sprawling sand hills, some of the dunes hundreds of feet high, and running all the way from the eastern horizon to the ocean, and not a blade of living grass to be seen—just barren scorched rock and dunes, though there are occasional green and irrigated valleys of mango and avocado orchards in the distance.

• The Andes. The temperate climate has a rainy season from November to April, with January through March being the rainiest period—during the rainy season incredible waterfalls appear and provide a delightful scene. The dry season runs from May to October, and is hot during the day and either warm or cold during the night.

The Andes shelter the very largest variety of climates in the country, with a semi-arid climate in the valleys and moist in higher elevations and towards the eastern flanks. Rainfall varies from 8 to 59 inches per year. The monsoonal period starts in October and ends in April. The rainiest months are January through March where travel can be sometimes affected.

The western slopes are arid to semi-arid and receive rainfall only between January and March. Below the 8,200 foot mark, the temperatures vary between 41º and 59ºF at night and 64º to 77°F in the day.

Between 8,200 and 11,500 feet, the temperatures vary from 32º to 54°F at night and from 59º to 77 °F during the day. At higher elevations from 11,500 to 14,750 feet, in the Puna grassland above the treeline, the temperature varies from 14º to 46°F during the night versus 59°F during the day. The northernmost regions of the Andes around Cajamarca and Puira regions have Páramo climates.

The Peruvian Rainforest on the eastern slopes of the Andes

 

• The Jungle. Tropical rainforest and Savannah with monsoon rains, cover about two-third of the country, found in the Peruvian Amazonia around Tarapoto and Iquitos. The lower rainforest has a warm climate with high humidity, and has rainy periods throughout the entire year. The higher rainforest is located in the eastern foothills of the Andes with altitudes ranging from 1,300 to 3,280 feet. The climate is cooler in the highland jungle, compared to the warmer temperatures in the lowland jungle. More isolated from the rest of the Amazon region and other regions, the habitat hosts an abundance of unique animal species.

The main water source of the Peruvian Jungle is the Amazon River. It’s the world’s largest and most extensive network of waterways, and is fed by the rivers of Ucayali and Marañon. The Amazon feeds more than 1,100 tributary rivers on its run to its mouth in the Atlantic Ocean. The Amazon flows approximately 4,040 miles, of which 443 miles run through Peru.

Situated in the northeast area of Peru, this rainforest, which spreads through the
Amazon Basin, and is the largest rainforest in the world at 2.5 million square miles, 54% of the total rainforest left on the planet.

Some of the important archaeological sites are found in this area of the Andes. They include: Chachapoyas, Cajamarca, Kuélap, Gran Pajatén, Moyobamba and Tarapoto. Along the coast are Chiklayo, Trujillo, and Chimbote.

Map of the Cloud Forest Region 

 

Tarapoto in the high jungle plateau to the east of what is known as the selva baja (low jungle), 1150 feet above sea level on the high jungle plateau, also called the cloud forest. Despite the fact that no accurate information is known on the origin of the people there, the Pocras (Pacora, Pocora, Huari), and believed to be the ancient Wari culture or the predecessors of them. It is believed that they were of mountain origin, occupying an area southeast of Moyobamba in the Peruvian Rain Forest, east of Chachapoyas where the fortress of Kuélap, home of the Cloud Warriors, is located, and 153 miles northeast of Cajamarca.

To the Southwest lies the archaeological site called the Gran Pajatén located in the Cloud Forest on a hilltop above the Montecristo River valley, and consists of a series of at least 26 circular stone structures atop numerous terraces and stairways. The ruins occupy an area of about 65,500 square feet, with the principal buildings decorated with slate mosaics displaying human, bird and geometric motifs. Analysis of ceramic samples and radiocarbon dates show that the area was occupied as early as 200 BC, and based primarily on architectural evidence the settlement is attributed to the Chachapoyas culture.

The Real Hill Cumorah

 

 Achilly Pachacamac, a unique stone sculpture which expresses the spirit of the indigenous Andean peoples. Achilly Pachacamac is the pre-Incan name for the supreme God, the life force which encompasses all other. The gigantic boulder from the 16,000-foot-high Mt.  Imbabura volcanic eruption containing the huge boulder that landed thousands of years ago in Peguche, Ecuador, sits peacefully over fourteen miles away.

Mt. Imbabura in northern Ecuador, a Land of Many Waters because of its numerous lakes and rivers

 

Imbabura, by far the most striking and dominant, less sprawling, more forbidding and more clearly a single isolated peak in the area, is of significant importance to the local culture. Mount Imbabura towers over the community of Ilumán on the east side of the Otavalo valley. It is the single dominant feature of the entire area.

The mountain, which involves a spiritual relationship with the land, is sometimes personified locally as Taita Imbabura, or "Papa Imbabura.” In fact, Imbabura is considered the sacred protector of the region by the locals.

Its giant bulk rises in three distinct zones: wild grassland beneath an apron of forest and crowned with a jagged black dragon-back on its summit. It is a clear example of a standalone volcano that was once active and has been sleeping for a long time. Its brooding presence gives the impression that it will one day wake again.

As Imbabura is covered in ancient volcanic ash, the slopes are very fertile, providing perfect conditions for the cloud forests to thrive, while the land around the volcano is used for farming. Consisting of a complex of cinder cones which vary in height, many of which are named, including el Cubilche, Azaya (or Huarmi Imbabura), Pangaladera, Cunrru, Artezón, Zapallo Loma, Angaraloma, and Araque.

As the dominant geographic feature of the area, the top of the volcanic mountain is covered in snow from time to time, but it does not have any permanent glaciers, as is the case with Cotopaxi and Chimborazo.

Sacred Peguche Waterfall

 

Nearby are the 59-foot high, 20-foot wide Peguche Waterfalls along lush steep slopes—one pf the Falls obvious, a second 20-foot high Falls hidden—that are a highly important place in Kichwa religion, serving as the place where purifications are held before the annual Inti Raymi celebrations each June, and considered an indigenous ceremonial site where the faithful gather for purification ritual washings before the Inti festival (reminiscent of Jewish traditions).

A province located in the Andes of northern Ecuador, the summit of Imbabura is 16,200 feet elevation and about 9 miles northeast of the town of Cotacachi and about 70 miles north of Quito.

Peguche Rainforest in the Faccha Llacta community

 

A waterfall originates at the foothills of Imbabura volcano, right at the northern tip of San Pablo Lake.  Las Cascadas de Peguche are situated 1.8 miles north of Otavalo

Originating at the foothills of Imbabura along the northwestern shore of San Pablo Lagoon the Falls are within the 40-acres of the protected Peguche Rainforest (Cascada de Peguche). Nearby are hot springs and the entire area is a sacred location and a place of pilgrimage.

Lake San Pablo at the base of Imbabura

 

The lagoon is a large lake lying to the south of the mountainous grounds of Imbabura Falls surrounded by rushes and green fields at 6,000 feet. The course of its waters run downstream by the river of the same name, which change its name into Jatun Yacu (big water) right after it tumbles free down the waterfall amidst shrub vegetation of elderberry, cholán and mainly blackberries.

One of many huge boulders ejected by Imbabura's last eruption, which landed near Peguche, just outside of Otavalo, was revered as Achilly Pachacamac, the supreme god, by pre-Incan peoples. According to local legend, Imbabura and Mt. Mojanda each hurled stones across the Otavalo Valley, and one of the boulders from Imbabura fell short and landed within the valley. It was carved into the shape of a face of Pachacamac many centuries ago.

Locals describe many spirits that dwell within this stone, and the mountains and streams that surround Achilly Pachacamac. It is said that powerful spirits, including evil or Chusalungos souls from a great battle that was fought in this area, inhabit Imbabura and the surrounding area. Local Otavalenos describe a great battle in which the Chusalungos surrounding Imbabura, with the area claimed to be enchanted, as no human nor animal has been capable of scaling or hiking across the area.

Such legends are generally passed down over the years or centuries that in antiquity were based on factual events. Over time, they change, grow, or vary according to the knowledge and superstition of the people involved. However, enough of the tale usually survives over time that enable later generations to understand the meanings or purposes of the original events. Such a great battle took place at Imbabura

Thus, we find that a great ancient battle was fought in the area of Imbabura in which many sores of men died. Numerous military artifacts have been found around Imbabura, including arrowheads, spear points, and rocks used in slings. Across the broad plain to the north of Imbaburo is Cotacachi

The mists above the rainforest covering the hiding Mormon and the rest of those who survived the battle at Cumorah

 

The sacred mountain of Imbabura was populated around 2100 BC (during the time of the Jaredites), by the Caranquis in the northern part of Ibarra, now the capital city. Caranquis became the source of most of the legends in the area. The Otavaleños arrived at the region now known as Otavalo around 150 AD, and reached the area near Atuntaqui. Much later, the Inca invaded the region around the year 1400 followed by the Spanish colonization in the sixteenth century.

The Hill Cumorah in western New York provides almost no cover for Mormon, Moroini and the others to hide out through the night while surrounded by tens of thousands of blood-thirsty Lamanites. This is also  true of the next morning for Mormon and the others to look out over the battlefield without detection. Mt Imbabura provides plenty of cover for such actions while the Hill Cumorah in western New York provides no cover at all

Theorists and the Scriptural Record of the Book of Mormon

As soon as the Book of Mormon was printed, people have been curious about the location of Lehi’s Land of Promise. Numerous people, some well-educated, some academicians, and also laymen, who feel they know things that nobody else knows, and expounded on the subject. They seem to believe they have special insight into the words engraved on the plates, and think the clear and simple words Mormon wrote and Joseph translated, do not really mean what their definitions tell us they mean.

Initially, soon after BYU started its first anthropology/archaeology department in 1946, the Mesoamerican theory of the Land of Promise took hold, and grew exponentially as professors in the new fields, under the direction of M. Wells Jakeman began teaching what they had been taught, that this singular location was indeed Lehi’s Land of Promise. Quickly, BYU began sponsoring digs and student work in that area. Soon after, tours began as so-called guides showed everyone who would pay for the trip, where they claimed the Book of Mormon lands were located.

Some of the theorists’ books on Book of Mormon geography

 

Many other theories followed, almost as fast as the presses could print them. Eventually, the theories began to center on North America, fist around the Great Lakes, and then within the Heartland. Over the past several years, thanks mostly to Rodney L. Meldrum who began his theorizing on the Book of Mormon location in 2003, and began in earnest with free lectures in 2007, pushed the North American model.  This theory, became the fastest growing idea connected to Land of Promise geography. It certainly attracted dogmatic believers.

Unfortunately, in so many cases, especially those surrounding the North American theories, the promoters and believers have strayed far from the scriptural record in making and supporting their claims, relying almost entirely on the supportive claims of early Church leaders who often gave their opinions as to where the Land of Promise was located.

In fact, Apostle Bruce R. McConkie stated: “Are all prophetic utterances true? Of course they are! This is what the Lord’s system of teaching is all about. Anything which his servants say when moved upon by the Holy Ghost is scripture. But every word that a man who is a prophet speaks is not a prophetic utterance. Joseph Smith taught that a prophet is not always a prophet, only when he is acting as such” (History of the Church, 5:265; see also Teachings, p. 278).

As Elder McConkie added, “Men who wear the prophetic mantle are still men; they have their own views; and their understanding of gospel truths is dependent upon the study and inspiration that is theirs. Some prophets—I say it respectfully—know more and have greater inspiration than others. Thus, if Brigham Young, who was one of the greatest of the prophets, said something about Adam which is out of harmony with what is in the Book of Moses and in section 78, it is the scripture that prevails.

The Standard Works: Bible, Book of Mormon, Doctrine and Covenants and Pearl of Great Price

 

This is one of the reasons we call our scriptures The Standard Works. They are the standard of judgment and the measuring rod against which all doctrines and views are weighed, and it does not make one particle of difference whose views are involved. The scriptures always take precedence” (Finding Answers to Gospel Questions,” Letter dated 1 July 1980, Published in Teaching Seminary Preservice Readings, Religion, 2004, pp370,471,475).

In addition, Joseph Smith stated: “I told them I did not enjoy the right vouchsafed to every American citizen; that of free speech. When I venture to give my private opinion on any subject of importance my words are often garbled and their meaning twisted and then given out as the word of the Lord because they came from me” (LaFayette C. Lee, Notebook," LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah; also in Remembering Joseph).

Along this line, Apostle D. Todd Christofferson stated: “Not every statement made by a Church leader, past or present, necessarily constitutes doctrine. It is commonly understood in the Church that a statement made by one leader on a single occasion often represents a personal, though well-considered, opinion, not meant to be official or binding for the whole Church” ("The Doctrine of Christ," Ensign, May 2012).
It should always be kept in mind that it is with divine inspiration that the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles counsel together to establish doctrine that is consistently proclaimed in official Church publications. This doctrine resides in the four “standard works” of scripture (the Holy Bible, the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants and the Pearl of Great Price), along with official declarations and proclamations, and the Articles of Faith” (“Approaching Mormon Doctrine,” LDS Newsroom, 4 May 2007).

It was Harold B. Lee  (left) who said, “It is not to be thought that every word spoken by the General Authorities is inspired, or that they are moved upon by the Holy Ghost in everything they write. I don't care what his position is, if he writes something or speaks something that goes beyond anything that you can find in the standard Church works, unless that one be the prophet, seer, and revelator—you may immediately say, "Well, that is his own idea."

If he says something that contradicts what is found in the standard Church works, you may know by that same token that it is false, regardless of the position of the man who says it” (Discourses of Brigham Young, sel. John A. Widtsoe, Deseret Book, Salt Lake City, 1941 p. 135; Teachings of Harold B. Lee, pp540-541).
In an official Church statement in May, 2007, it reads: “Not every statement made by a Church leader, past or present, necessarily constitutes doctrine. A single statement made by a single leader on a single occasion often represents a personal, though well-considered, opinion, but is not meant to be officially binding for the whole Church”

Finally, B.H. Roberts, leader, historian, and politician, who published a popular six-volume history of the Church and also wrote Studies of the Book of Mormon, said: “Relative to these sermons [Journal of Discourses] I must tell you they represent the individual views of the speakers, and the Church is not responsible for their teachings. Our authorized Church works are the Bible, Book of Mormon, Doctrine and Covenants, and the Pearl of Great Price. In the Church very wide latitude is given to individual belief and opinion, each man being responsible for his views and not the Church; the Church is only responsible for that which it sanctions and approves through the formal actions of its councils. So it may be that errors will be found in the sermons of men, and that in their over zeal unwise expressions will escape them, for all of which the Church is not responsible.”

The point is, all people, including prophets, leaders, and members, are entitled to, and often give their own opinions about matters. That does not mean they are right or that they are wrong—it only means it is their opinion. To build a philosophy, hypothesis, or extensive theory on an opinion, especially when we have the scriptural record that is not an opinion but the world of God to rely on, is simply not wise.

Therefore, any theory based almost solely on what modern day (or this Dispensation) leaders have said, unless backed by official Church statements, simply do not have precedence over the scriptural record. As an example, when Mormon tells us the Land of Promise runs north and south, no academician, or even Church leader, who says the Land of Promise ran east and west can be correct because the scriptural record takes precedence. When Samuel the Lamanite said the Lord told him to say that there would be mountains rise in the Land of Promise “whose height is great,” and that before that the Land of Promise had mountains that would tumble into valleys as Nephi foresaw, the Land of Promise has to be a mountainous land before 3 Nephi, and a greater mountainous land after 3 Nephi whose mountains were of great height.

No historian, academician, Church leader or member can say otherwise, since the scriptural record takes precedence over anyone else—even a prophet unless he is speaking as a prophet according to Joseph Smith. Thus, the entire theory of the Heartland as well as the Great Lakes, is inconsistent with the scriptural record which continually describes mountains within the Land of Promise

Consequently, all of us should, as we do entirely in this blog, use only one dominant criteria in evaluating our own or anyone’s ideas about the Book of Mormon’s geographical setting and that is the scriptural record itself. While almost all writers talk about matching scripture, none seem to take the idea much past the theory stage and apply the actual scriptural descriptions to their specific ideas and models. Some writers will quote or reference a scripture in connection with a statement, but they know that very, very few people will look up a reference—unfortunately, when the reference is checked, more often than not the reference really has nothing to do with the statement, or only on a very peripheral manner, and often has a different meaning entirely (see the book Inaccuracies of Mesoamerican and Other Theories for an extensive example of such references).

Thus, we see that it is imperative that we rely on the scriptural record for verification of our own ideas, as well as those of another, no matter who that person is, unless he is speaking for the church.